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Class 12 History Chapter 3 Friendship, Caste, and Class Early Societies (c. 600 BCE–600 CE)
Selected Questions & Answers
A. Very Short Answer Questions: (Marks for each – 1)
1. Under whose leadership was the critical edition of the Mahabharata started?
Ans: The critical edition of the Mahabharata was started in 1919 under the leadership of V. S. Sukthankar.
2. How many years did it take to complete the critical edition of the Mahabharata?
Ans: 47 years.
3. What is meant by “Kinship”?
Ans: The relationship that binds certain people together as a group is called kinship.
4. What is meant by the practice of exogamy? H. S. ’18
Ans: The practice of marrying a daughter outside her own gotra is called exogamy.
5. When was the Manusmriti composed?
Ans: Between 200 BCE and 200 CE.
6. What is called “Arsha marriage”?
Ans: The practice in which sages gave their daughters in marriage for the purpose of obtaining a worthy son is called Arsha marriage.
7. When did the gotra system begin in India?
Ans: The gotra division system began around 1000 BCE.
8. What is the meaning of the word “Puta”?
Ans: The word “Puta” means son. Example: “Gautami Puta” means son of Gautama.
9. Who first used the word “Caste”?
Ans: The Portuguese who came to India in the 16th century first used the word ‘Caste.’
10. How were the Mauryan rulers described in Brahmanical literature?
Ans: They were described as belonging to ordinary or low lineage.
11. What name did the Brahmanas give to the Shakas who came to India from Central Asia?
Ans: They were called Mlechchhas, meaning barbarians or foreigners.
12. Who was the author of the book “Mrchchhakatika”?
Ans: Shudraka.
13. Who married Hidimba?
Ans: Bhima, the second Pandava, married Hidimba.
14. According to historians, who were called “Rakshasas”?
Ans: According to historians, those who did not follow the customs and practices described in Brahmanical texts were called Rakshasas.
15. Who were called “Chandalas” in the Manusmriti?
Ans: Those who disposed of dead animals and performed funeral rites were called Chandalas.
16. Who was Draupadi?
Ans: Draupadi was the daughter of King Drupada of Panchala. She was married to the five Pandavas.
17. Where is the practice of polyandry still found?
Ans: In some parts of the Himalayan region.
18. Who composed the Sanskrit grammar “Ashtadhyayi”?
Ans: Panini.
19. When was the “Sushruta Samhita” composed?
Ans: Around 100 BCE.
20. How many verses are there in the Mahabharata?
Ans: More than one lakh (one hundred thousand) verses.
21. What is meant by endogamy?
Ans: Marriage within one’s own gotra or caste is called endogamy.
22. What is meant by Varnadharma or ideal occupation? H. S. ’18
Ans: The Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras described the duties and occupations to be performed by the four varnas. These duties are called Varnadharma or ideal occupation.
23. Who wrote the play “Mudrarakshasa”?
Ans: Vishakhadatta.
24. Who was called the “tiger-like husband”?
Ans: Bhima.
25. Whose son was Ghatotkacha?
Ans: Ghatotkacha was the son of Bhima and Hidimba.
26. Who is the author of the short story “Kunti and the Nishadi”?
Ans: Mahasweta Devi.
27. What was the name of the mother of the Kauravas? H. S. ’15
Ans: Gandhari.
28. Where was the birthplace of Gautama Buddha? H. S. ’16
Ans: In a village named Lumbini near Kapilavastu.
29. Who was the originator of Buddhism?
Ans: Gautom Budha.
30. What is the meaning of the word “Tripitaka”? H. S. ’18
Ans: Three baskets.
31. Who were called ‘Theri’?
Ans: Buddhist women who attained Nirvana or liberation were called Theri.
32. Write any two duties prescribed for Chandalas in the Manusmriti. H. S. ’17
Ans: The two duties prescribed for Chandalas in the Manusmriti were—
(a) Disposing of dead animals.
(b) Performing funeral rites.
33. Write the names of any two Sufi saints of medieval India. H. S.’19
Ans: Moinuddin Chishti and Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki.
B. Short Answer Questions: (Marks for each – 2)
1. Why and between whom was the Mahabharata war fought?
Ans: The Mahabharata war was fought between the Kauravas and the Pandavas over the throne of Hastinapura.
2. Who started the work of the critical edition of the Mahabharata and when?
Ans: The work of the critical edition of the Mahabharata was started in 1919 under the leadership of V. S. Sukthankar.
3. Mention the main features of patriarchal and matriarchal families.
Ans: In a patriarchal family, kinship relations are traced through the father’s line. In a matriarchal family, kinship relations are traced through the mother’s line.
4. What is meant by polyandry and polygyny?
Ans: The system in which a woman has more than one husband is called polyandry. The system in which a man has more than one wife is called polygyny.
5. How many types of marriage were there and what were they?
Ans: According to ancient Dharmasutras, there were eight types of marriage, namely Prajapatya, Brahma, Daiva, Arsha, Gandharva, Asura, Rakshasa and Paishacha marriage.
6. How did the gotra system originate?
Ans: Around 1000 BCE, the gotra system began in ancient India as a means of social classification. Its main purpose was to classify Brahmanas. Each gotra was named after a sage, and its members were considered descendants of that sage. After marriage, a daughter left her father’s gotra and adopted her husband’s gotra. Marriage within the same gotra was prohibited.
7. Mention two special rules of the gotra system.
Ans: Two special rules of the gotra system were:
(a) After marriage, a daughter left her father’s gotra and adopted her husband’s gotra.
(b) Marriage within the same gotra was prohibited.
8. Who was Gandhari? What advice did she give to Duryodhana? H. S. ’18
Ans: Gandhari was the wife of Dhritarashtra and the mother of the Kauravas. She advised her son Duryodhana not to go to war against the Pandavas.
9. According to the Manusmriti, by what means could a man acquire property?
Ans: According to the Manusmriti, a man could acquire property in seven ways: through inheritance, finding treasure, purchase, investment, conquest, work and receiving gifts. These provisions created inequality between men and women.
10. Who were Drona and Ekalavya?
Ans: Drona, also known as Dronacharya, was the teacher of the Pandavas and Kauravas and taught them archery. Ekalavya was the son of a hunter who wished to learn archery from Dronacharya, but he was not accepted as a disciple.
11. Who was Ghatotkacha?
Ans: Ghatotkacha was the son of Bhima and Hidimba. He participated in the Mahabharata war.
12. Who was Matanga?
Ans: Matanga was the son of a Chandala. In a previous birth, he was known as a Bodhisattva.
13. What were the duties of the Chandalas?
Or
Write any two duties prescribed for the Chandalas in the Manusmriti. H. S. ’17
Ans: According to the Manusmriti, the duties of the Chandalas included performing the funeral rites of lonely and helpless persons. They were required to use earthen pots and wear the clothes and iron ornaments of the dead.
14. What is meant by ‘Stridhan’?
Ans: The wealth received by a woman as gifts at the time of marriage is called Stridhan. The husband had no right over such property.
15. Into how many parts have historians divided the narrative portion of the Mahabharata?
Ans: Historians have divided the narrative portion of the Mahabharata into two parts: descriptive and didactic.
16. Who was Ashwatthama?
Ans: Ashwatthama was the son of Dronacharya.
17. What were the social responsibilities of the Brahmanas?
Ans: In the traditional four-varna system of Indian society, the Brahmanas occupied the highest position. Their duties included performing rituals, conducting religious ceremonies, studying the Vedas and receiving gifts.
18. How did the Brahmanas establish themselves firmly in society?
Ans: The Brahmanas held a high position in society and played a dominant role. They composed religious texts and declared themselves the favored creation of Brahma. They performed rituals and propagated the idea that all other varnas were created to serve them. The rulers were also influenced by them and helped maintain their high social status. In this way, the Brahmanas established themselves in society.
19. According to the Manusmriti, how should property be divided after the king’s death?
Ans: According to the Manusmriti, after the king’s death, his property was to be divided among his sons, and the eldest son would receive an extra share as a mark of honor. Daughters were not entitled to a share.
20. What is meant by Yajna?
Ans: Yajna was a ritual ceremony performed in ancient times by kings or influential persons. It was a complex process and could not be conducted without priests. Yajnas were performed for victory in war, prosperity in agriculture, long life and declaration of valor. Feasts were arranged, and gifts were given to the poor and to Brahmanas.
21. What is the Eightfold Path according to Gautama Buddha? H.S. ’15
Ans: According to Gautama Buddha, the Eightfold Path consists of right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right thought, right mindfulness, right resolve and right view.
22. Write two teachings of Mahavira. H. S. ’16
Ans: Speak the truth and do not steal.
C. Medium Answer Type Questions: (Marks for each – 4)
1. Discuss whether it was possible for the Mahabharata to have been composed by a single author.
Ans: It is traditionally believed that the sage Vyasa composed the Mahabharata. However, scholars argue that it was not written by a single author. In its earliest form, the Mahabharata contained only about 10,000verses. Over time, the number of verses increased to more than one lakh. Some scholars suggest that the text was first composed by Sutas, who were bards or charioteers. They accompanied Kshatriya warriors to battlefields and composed poems orally based on the events of war. These compositions were transmitted orally for many generations before being written down by Brahmanas. Since the Mahabharata contains references to kings and events of different periods, there is reasonable doubt that it was the work of a single author.
2. What did the Chinese Buddhist travellers mention about the Chandalas?
Ans: The Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Faxian mentioned in his account that the practice of untouchability existed in India during his time. The Chandalas were considered a low caste. He wrote that when a Chandala walked on the road, he had to clap his hands so that others might avoid contact with him. Another Chinese traveller, Xuanzang, stated that butchers and certain outcast groups were not allowed to live within the city. Overall, from the accounts of the Chinese pilgrims, it is clear that lower classes in ancient India had very limited social rights.
3. What were the ideal occupations of the four varnas as prescribed by the Dharmashastras and Dharmasutras? H. S. ’20
Ans: Ancient Indian society was divided into four varnas: Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra. According to the Dharmasutras, the ideal occupations were as follows—
(a) Brahmanas: They were to perform sacrifices, rituals and other religious duties.
(b) Kshatriyas: They were responsible for warfare, protection and administration.
(c) Vaishyas: They were to engage in agriculture, trade and cattle-rearing.
(d) Shudras: They were expected to serve the other three varnas.
D. Long Answer Questions: (Marks for each – 6)
1. What aspects did historians emphasize while analyzing literary sources? H. S. ’16
Ans: While analyzing literary sources, historians paid attention to several important aspects.
First, they tried to determine in which language the texts were composed, whether in Pali, Tamil, Prakrit or Sanskrit.
Second, they attempted to find out when the texts were written or compiled. They also examined whether the texts were religious hymns recited in rituals or popular narratives meant for the general public.
Third, historians considered the perspective and intention of the authors. Every piece of writing reflects the author’s viewpoint and intellectual background. If the author held a narrow outlook, the text might contain bias. Therefore, understanding the author’s perspective is essential for proper historical interpretation.
2. According to the Manusmriti, by what means could men and women acquire property? Do you think these methods created a distinction between men and women? H. S. ’18
Ans: The Manusmriti prescribed seven ways by which men could acquire property. These included inheritance, discovery or finding property, purchase, conquest, earning through work, and receiving gifts from respectable persons. In the case of women, six main sources of property were mentioned. These included property given at the time of marriage in the presence of the sacred fire, gifts received during the bridal procession, and wealth received from father, mother and brothers. Additionally, gifts received after marriage and whatever was given by a loving husband were considered a woman’s property. It can be said that these provisions created a distinction between men and women. Men could inherit property and also earn independently through work and trade. Women, however, largely depended on gifts and the goodwill of others. They were generally not permitted to earn property independently.
This system made women economically dependent on men and others.
3. Explain the importance of history. H. S. ’19
Ans: The term “history” refers to a chronological record of past events. It reflects the events that have taken place in earlier times. The study of history plays a significant role in the progress of human civilization.
First, history helps us understand the political systems of a particular region.
Second, it acts like a mirror, connecting the past with the present.
Third, it enables us to avoid the mistakes committed in the past.
Fourth, history discusses human beings and their activities. By studying them, we can understand the consequences of actions.
Fifth, history satisfies our curiosity about the past.
Sixth, it provides materials that help in shaping the present and the future course of life.
Seventh, history is a storehouse of knowledge. Along with political events, it reflects social, economic and cultural aspects of life.
