Class 12 Logic & Philosophy Chapter 2 Basis of Induction (Canons of Causation and the Material Ground of Induction)
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Selected Questions & Answers
A. Very Short Answer Questions: (Marks for each – 1)
1. How many kinds of formal basis of induction are there?
Ans: Two kinds.
2. What are the formal bases of induction?
Ans: The formal bases of induction are two, namely:
(a) the Law of Uniformity of Nature and
(b) the Law of Causation.
3. What are the material bases of induction?
Ans: The material bases of induction are two, namely:
(a) Observation and
(b) Experiment.
4. What is the fundamental basis of unscientific induction?
Ans: The Law of Uniformity of Nature.
5. Is the Law of Uniformity of Nature a formal basis of induction?
Ans: Yes.
6. How many general conditions of observation are there?
Ans: Three.
7. On what does the formal validity of induction depend?
Ans: The formal validity of induction depends on the Law of Causationand the Law of Uniformity of Nature.
8. “The difference between observation and experiment is notqualitative but quantitative.” Is this acceptable?
Ans: Yes.
9. “Cause is the sum total of favourable and unfavourableconditions.” Whose statement is this?
Ans: John Stuart Mill.
10. Is the ‘Plurality of Causes’ a valid theory regarding causation?
Ans: No.
11. “From the quantitative point of view, cause and effect areequivalent.” Whose statement is this?
Ans: Carveth Read.
12. “The sum total of positive conditions alone is the cause.” Is thisstatement true?
Ans: False.
13. “Nature is not uniform only; nature is infinitely diverse.” Is thistrue?
Ans: True.
14. What is the name of the fallacy arising from Mill’s contradictoryview regarding the Law of Uniformity of Nature?
Ans: The Paradox of Induction.
15. “Observation is the discovery of events.” Whose statement isthis?
Ans: Bain.
16. Observation belongs to which type of basis?
Ans: Material basis.
17. “In moonlight, a rope lying on the ground appears like a snake.”This is an example of which type of error?
Ans: Erroneous observation.
18. A crow sat on a palm tree and the palm fruit fell. This is anexample of which type of fallacy?
Ans: Accidental fallacy (Post hoc fallacy).
19. Choose the correct answer: Cause is the invariable / variableantecedent of effect.
Ans: Invariable antecedent.
20. Write the correct answer: The scope of observation is narrower/ wider than that of experiment.
Ans: Wider.
21. The paradox of induction is related to the Law of Causation / Method of Difference / Law of Uniformity of Nature. Write the correctone.
Ans: The Law of Uniformity of Nature.
22. The difference between observation and experiment is qualitative/ quantitative. Which is correct?
Ans: Quantitative.
23. Choose the correct answer: The Law of Uniformity of Natureaccepts / does not accept diversity in nature.
Ans: Accepts.
24. The difference between observation and experiment is of kind / of degree. Write the correct one.
Ans: Of degree.
25. Choose the correct answer: Not perceiving an object in its trueform is called non-perception / illusion.
Ans: Illusion.
26. “Nature behaves in the same way under the same circumstances.”Is this true?
Ans: True.
27. “Cause is the sum total of positive and negative conditions.”Whose statement is this?
Ans: Carveth Read.
28. What is ‘Cause’? H. S. ’17
Ans: Cause is the unconditional, invariable, and immediate antecedent ofan effect.
29. Which of the following statements is true? H. S. ’17
(a) The Law of Causation is the material basis of induction.
(b) Observation and the Law of Causation are the formal bases of induction.
(c) Observation and Experiment are the formal bases of induction.
(d) None of the above is true.
Ans: (d) None of the above is true.
30. “Cause and effect are both events occurring at a particular time.”Is this a quantitative mark of cause? H. S. ’16
Ans: No.
31. Who propounded the doctrine of ‘Pre-established Harmony’?H. S. ’16
Ans: Leibniz.
32. What is meant by ‘Real Cause’? H. S. ’17
Ans: An actually existing cause capable of producing an effect is called aReal Cause.
33. Which of the following statement is correct? H. S. ’16
(a) A hypothesis can be verified only by observation.
(b) A hypothesis can be directly verified either by observation or byexperiment.
(c) A hypothesis can be verified only by experiment.
Ans: (b) A hypothesis can be directly verified either by observation or byexperiment.
34. Which statement is correct? H. S. ’16
(a) Experiment is the discovery of events and observation is the creationof events.
(b) Observation comes after experiment.
(c) In experiment, cause cannot be determined from effect.
Ans: (c) In experiment, cause cannot be determined from effect.
35. Which of the following is not a condition of correct observation? H. S. ’14
(a) The observer must be intellectually sound.
(b) The observer must be impartial.
(c) The observer must use artificial instruments.
(d) The observer must possess a healthy body and mind.
Ans: (c) The observer must use artificial instruments.
36. Which of the following statement is not correct? H. S. ’15
(a) Observation is a perception made with a definite purpose.
(b) Observation is the perception of natural events.
(c) Observation is not the perception of events occurring in a natural environment.
(d) In observation, natural events are completely under the control of theobserver.
Ans: (c) Observation is not the perception of events occurring in a natural environment.
B. Short Questions and Answers: (Marks for each – 2)
1. What is meant by the ‘Law of Uniformity of Nature’?
Ans: The Law of Uniformity of Nature is the formal basis of inductionaccording to which, under the same circumstances and environment, natureproduces the same events.
2. What is meant by the ‘Basis of Induction’?
Ans: The two universal and fundamental laws which are presupposed asprior assumptions in establishing a valid universal proposition in inductiveinference are called the ‘Basis of Induction’.
3. What is meant by Pluralism of Causes?
Ans: The doctrine which holds that the same effect may be produced bydifferent causes is called ‘Pluralism of Causes’.
4. What is meant by ‘Combination of Causes’?
Ans: When more than one cause of the same kind jointly produces aneffect, it is called ‘Combination of Causes’.
5. Define Condition.
Ans: The essential parts or circumstances of a principal cause are called‘Conditions’. Conditions are of two kinds, namely positive conditions andnegative conditions.
6. Define Efficient Cause with example.
Ans: The power, skill, or agency required to produce an effect is calledthe ‘Efficient Cause’. Example – While making a table, the strength and skill applied by the carpenter with tools on the pieces of wood constitute theefficient cause.
7. According to Aristotle, how many kinds of causes are there andwhat are they?
Ans: According to Aristotle, there are four kinds of causes:
(a) Material Cause, (b) Formal Cause, (c) Efficient Cause, and (d) Final Cause.
8. What is Material Cause? Give example.
Ans: The substance or matter out of which an effect is produced is calledthe ‘Material Cause’. Example – The thread used in making cloth is thematerial cause.
9. What is meant by ‘Co-operation of Causes’ or ‘Combination of Causes’? Explain with example. H. S. ’14
Ans: When several causes are combined and act together to produce acomplex effect, they are called ‘Co-operating Causes’. Example – Lightingfive lamps together in a room to illuminate it; the joint action of the five lampsis the co-operating cause.
10. Distinguish between Active and Passive Conditions with suitable example. H. S. ’14
Ans: Active condition is the condition that acts, whereas that upon whichit acts is the passive condition. When a burning matchstick is thrown into abowl of kerosene oil and the oil catches fire, the matchstick is the activecondition and the kerosene oil is the passive condition.
11. According to Aristotle, what is Formal Cause? H. S. ’18
Ans: The new form or shape given to a product arising from the material cause is called the ‘Formal Cause’.
12. State the meaning of the Law of Conservation of Substance andEnergy. H. S. ’18
Ans: Energy is neither increased nor decreased; it only transforms fromone form to another.
13. Can one effect have more than one cause? H. S. ’18
Ans: No.
14. Why are Observation and Experiment called the material basesof inductive inference? H. S. ’17
Ans: In inductive inference, particular instances are collected throughobservation and experiment and relations are established among them. Therefore, observation and experiment are called the material bases ofinduction.
15. Mention two advantages of strong observation. H. S. ’17
Ans: Two advantages of strong observation are:
(a) Through strong observation, one can investigate effect from cause andcause from effect.
(b) The field of application of strong observation is wide.
16. What is the intellectual condition of observation?
Ans: The intellectual condition of observation is inquisitiveness or thedesire to know.
C. Medium Answer Type Questions: (Marks for each – 4)
1. “The Law of Causation is the formal basis of induction.” Explain. H. S. ’18
Ans: According to the Law of Causation, every effect or event has a cause. That is, no effect can occur without a cause. If anything were to happen without
a cause, no event could be explained. Cause is the antecedent event and effect is the consequent event. But if any antecedent event is regarded as a cause, there is a possibility of the post hoc fallacy. Therefore, there are certain rulesof causal relation:
(a) There must be a cause for the occurrence of an effect.
(b) The effect must regularly follow from that cause.
(c) In the absence of that cause, the effect will not occur. Thus, only whenthe cause is present does the effect occur. To establish a universal proposition, induction depends on these laws. Theaim of induction is to establish universal propositions, which cannot beestablished solely by direct experience. Hence, universal propositions areestablished on the basis of the Law of Uniformity of Nature and the Law ofCausation. Therefore, the Law of Causation is called the formal basis ofinduction.
2. What is the Post hoc fallacy? Explain.
Ans: The post hoc fallacy is a fallacy relating to the occurrence of anevent. Cause is the antecedent of an effect. But not every antecedent event isa cause. When any antecedent event is assumed to be the cause, this fallacyarises. In Indian logic, this fallacy is illustrated by the example: as soon as acrow sits on a palm tree, a palm fruit falls. It is wrongly explained that thecrow’s sitting caused the fruit to fall. In reality, the fall of the fruit is due togravitational force; even if the crow had not sat, the fruit might have fallen.
The crow’s sitting is merely an accidental antecedent event. Therefore, theerror committed by assuming any antecedent event as the cause of an event iscalled the post hoc fallacy. Many examples of such fallacies are found insocial superstitions, such as thinking that the departure of a sage caused anepidemic, the appearance of a comet caused the death of a king, or the arrival
of a naked fakir caused a patient’s death. Scientifically, these are mere superstitions.
3. What is Observation? Discuss its characteristics. H. S. ’18
Ans: When natural events are systematically perceived with a definitepurpose, it is called ‘Observation’ or ‘Strong Observation’. Its characteristicsare:
(a) It is purposive perception, unlike ordinary perception.
(b) It is the perception of natural events in their natural environment.
(c) The events observed are not under the control of the observer.
(d) For correct observation, certain general conditions are necessary:
intellectual condition, physical condition, and moral condition. The observermust be inquisitive, possess sound senses, and be free from bias.
4. Explain the defects of Observation. H. S. ’18
Ans: Observation is the systematic perception of natural events with adefinite purpose. The defects of observation are mainly two:
(1) Non-observation or incomplete observation and
(2) Mis-observation.
(1) Non-observation: When one fails to observe what ought to beobserved, it is called non-observation. It is of two kinds:
(a) Non-observation of essential instances: When one forms a conclusionbased only on favourable instances, ignoring other necessary instances.
Example – A soldier wins a battle after wearing a charm and concludes that the charm caused his victory.
(b) Non-observation of essential circumstances: When surroundingnecessary conditions are ignored and only one antecedent is regarded as thecomplete cause.
(2) Mis-observation: When a wrong interpretation is given to senseperception. It is of two kinds:
(a) Individual mis-observation: Occurs in the case of a particular persononly, e.g., mistaking a rope for a snake.
(b) Universal mis-observation: Occurs in the case of all persons, e.g., passengers in a moving vehicle see roadside trees as moving in the opposite direction.
5. What is Experiment? Discuss its characteristics.
Ans: Preparing an artificial situation for a definite purpose and perceivingit is called ‘Experiment’. It may involve scientific instruments. Itscharacteristics are:
(a) It has a definite purpose and is methodical.
(b) The subject matter is artificially produced.
(c) The events are under the control of the experimenter.
6. What is Pluralism of Causes? Is it acceptable scientifically? H. S. ’19
Ans: Pluralism of Causes is a mistaken doctrine regarding causation. It holds that one effect may have many causes. Though it appears true from acommon-sense view, scientifically it is not acceptable because:
(a) It ignores the common features underlying different causes.
(b) It emphasizes only the distinctive features of causes, not the commonnature of the effect. For example, death may occur due to accident, suicide, murder, drowning, etc., but death represents a common feature. Hence, pluralism of causes is not scientifically acceptable.
7. Distinguish between Cause and Condition with suitable example. H. S. ’17
Ans: Cause is the unconditional, invariable, and immediate antecedent ofan effect, whereas conditions are the essential parts or circumstances of theprincipal cause. Cause is a complex of events; each constituent part is acondition. Example – If a person falls from a ladder and dies, the fall is thecause of death. But other factors such as height, physical weakness, hardnessof the ground, and intensity of injury are conditions.
8. Distinguish between Pluralism of Causes and Combination of Causes. H. S. ’14
Ans: (a) According to pluralism, different causes independently producethe same effect; but according to combination, different causes jointly producean effect. (b) In pluralism, the effect is a single simple event; in combination, the effect is a complex event.
9. Explain the quantitative mark of cause with reference to theLaw of Conservation of Energy, with example. H. S. ’14, ’16
Ans: According to the Law of Conservation of Energy, energy is neitherincreased nor decreased; it only changes form. Example – When electrical energy is transformed into light, the energy inherent in the cause manifests asthe energy of the effect.
10. Can an end justify the means? Explain with example. H. S. ’14, ’16
Ans: An end cannot justify the means. For a work to be good, not only theend but also the means must be good. Helping the poor is good, but stealingsomeone’s property to help the poor is not justified. The means must be morallysound.
11. Explain the relation between Cause and Condition with example. H. S. ’16
Ans: Cause is the unconditional, invariable, and immediate antecedent ofan effect, whereas conditions are the essential parts of the principal cause.
Cause is a complex of events; each component is a condition. Example – If aperson falls from a ladder and dies, the fall is the cause; height, physical weakness, hardness of ground, and severity of injury are conditions. Conditionsare of two kinds:
(a) Positive conditions and
(b) Negative conditions. Positive conditions must be present for the effect to occur. Negative conditions are those whose absence is necessary for theeffect.
12. What is Experiment? What are its advantages over Observation? H. S. ’17
Ans: Experiment is the perception of an artificially prepared situation fora definite purpose. Its advantages over observation are:
(a) Conclusions of experiment are certain, whereas those of observationare probable.
(b) Events can be repeated in experiment.
(c) Events can be more accurately observed.
(d) Irrelevant factors can be excluded.
13. Distinguish between Non-observation of essential instances andNon-observation of essential circumstances with example. H. S. ’15
Ans: Failure to observe necessary instances is called non-observation ofessential instances. Example – Concluding that eating pork caused a person’sdrowning without observing the real cause.
Non-observation of essential circumstances occurs when surroundingrelevant conditions are ignored. Example – Concluding that eating an applecured a disease while ignoring other relevant factors like rest and care.
14. What is Mis-observation? Distinguish between Individual andUniversal Mis-observation with example. H. S. ’15
Ans: Mis-observation is perceiving an object otherwise than it really isdue to wrong interpretation of sense data. Individual mis-observation occursin a particular person only, e.g., mistaking a rope for a snake. Universal misobservation occurs in all persons, e.g., passengers in a moving vehicle perceiveroadside trees as moving backward.
D. Descriptive Answer Type Questions (Marks for each–6)
1. Discuss the similarities and dissimilarities between Observationand Experiment.
Ans: There are certain similarities between Observation and Experiment, such as—
(a) Both Observation and Experiment are purposive processes. Whetherin a natural environment or in an artificial environment, there is always adefinite objective in analyzing events.
(b) In both Observation and Experiment, the object of perception isselected.
(c) Both processes involve controlled perception. In both cases, the mindis withdrawn from irrelevant events and concentrated on relevant events, andthe series of events is perceived attentively. Although there are similaritiesbetween Observation and Experiment in some respects, there are also certaindifferences between them, such as—
(a) The subject matter of Observation is natural phenomena. On the otherhand, the subject matter of Experiment is artificial.
(b) In Observation, an event is perceived only in its natural environment.
On the other hand, in Experiment, an event is perceived in an artificial environment.
(c) In Observation, the event or environment to be observed is not underthe control of the observer. It is entirely dependent on nature.
On the other hand, in Experiment, the environment is always under thecontrol of the experimenter. If desired, the experimenter can reproduce theevent repeatedly in an artificial environment.
2. According to Indian Nyaya Philosophy, what is ‘Cause’? Howmany kinds of Cause are there and what are they?
Ans: According to Indian Nyaya Philosophy, a Cause is that set ofconditions which are invariably antecedent to an effect. In Indian NyayaPhilosophy, Cause is divided into three kinds, namely—
(a) Samavayi Cause: The material by which an effect is produced iscalled the Samavayi Cause. There exists an inseparable relation (Samavayarelation) between the material and the object produced from it; hence Samavayi Cause is also called Material Cause.
(b) Asamavayi Cause: Any quality or action that inheres in the material cause is called the Asamavayi Cause. For example, the Samavayi cause of apiece of cloth is thread. The relation between the cloth and the threads is oneof inherence. On the other hand, the green colour of the thread is theAsamavayi cause of the cloth.
(c) Nimitta Cause: That whose power or effort produces the effect iscalled the Nimitta Cause. In other words, the agent of an action is the NimittaCause.
3. Define Auxiliary Cause. How many kinds of Auxiliary Cause arethere and what are they?
Or
What is meant by Auxiliary Cause? With suitable examples, writeabout Positive (Favourable) and Negative (Unfavourable) AuxiliaryCauses. H. S. ’16
Ans: An indispensable part of a cause is called an Auxiliary Cause. That is, all the events included within the cause of producing an effect areindividually Auxiliary Causes. Auxiliary Causes are of two kinds, namely—(a) Positive or FavourableAuxiliary Cause and (b) Negative or Unfavourable Auxiliary Cause.
Those Auxiliary Causes without which an effect cannot occur successfullyare called Positive Auxiliary Causes. For example, a person fell into a well and died. The positive auxiliary causes would be—the person’s falling intothe well, the depth of the well, the force of gravity, etc.
On the other hand, those Auxiliary Causes whose presence would prevent the occurrence of the effect are called Negative or Unfavourable AuxiliaryCauses. For example, if a person dies by falling into a well, the negativeauxiliary causes of his death would be his ability to float or swim, help receivedfrom others, etc.
4. Following Carveth Read, define Cause. Briefly explain thequalitative characteristics of Cause. H. S. ’16
Ans: According to the logician Carveth Read, from the qualitative point of view, a Cause is an event that is invariably, unconditionally, and immediatelyantecedent to an effect.
Cause has certain qualitative characteristics, which are as follows—(a) Cause and Effect are correlative terms. Without a cause there is noeffect, and without an effect there is no conception of cause.
(b) Cause and Effect are always antecedent and consequent events. However, not every antecedent event can be called a cause, because a causemust be invariably connected with a particular effect. If any antecedent event is regarded as a cause, it would result in the fallacy of post hoc (false cause). Two events being invariably antecedent and consequent does not necessarilyconstitute a causal relation, because the power to produce the effect must reside in the cause.
(c) There is no third term between cause and effect. Every effect has onlyone cause.
