Class 12 Logic & Philosophy Chapter 1 Induction (Nature of Inductive Enquiry Various Kinds of Induction)
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Selected Questions & Answers
A. Very Short Answer Type Questions: (Marks for each–1)
1. What kind of proposition does scientific induction establish?
Ans: Universal valid proposition.
2. “The conclusion of induction is less extensive than the premise.”Is the statement true or false?
Ans: False.
3. “The conclusion of scientific induction is probable in nature.” Isthe statement true or false?
Ans: False.
4. Is mere enumeration a type of real induction?
Ans: No.
5. “Unscientific induction paves the way for scientific induction.” Isthe statement true?
Ans: True.
6. “Induction and deduction are complementary to each other.” Isit true?
Ans: True.
7. What is the fundamental characteristic of induction?
Ans: Inductive leap.
8. Is there an inductive leap in complete induction?
Ans: No.
9. What is the main basis of analogical inference?
Ans: The number of similar instances.
10. “The difference between induction and deduction isfundamental.” Is the statement true?
Ans: Not true.
11. “The Uniformity of Nature is the basis of unscientific induction.” Is it true?
Ans: True.
12. “All the mangoes in the basket are sweet.” – This is an exampleof which type of induction?
Ans: Complete induction.
13. If there is no inductive leap, what is that induction called?
Ans: So-called induction.
14. Is the conclusion of analogical inference certain in nature?
Ans: No.
15. In analogical inference, does one proceed from the known to theunknown? H. S. ’17
Ans: Yes.
16. Does scientific induction depend on the law of causation?
Ans: Yes.
17. “All crows are black.” – This is an example of which type ofinduction?
Ans: Unscientific induction.
18. How many types of inductive inference are there?
Ans: Two types.
19. “The conclusion of scientific induction is certain.” Why?
Ans: Because scientific induction establishes its conclusion on the basisof the causal relation; therefore, its conclusion is certain.
20. Choose the correct answer: In inductive inference, movement is made from universal to particular / from particular to universal.
Ans: From particular to universal.
21. Choose the correct one: Inductive inference is related to formal truth / material truth / both truths.
Ans: Related to both truths.
22. How many types of real induction are there?
Ans: Three types.
23. Is there any difference between mere enumeration and completeenumeration?
Ans: Yes.
24. “The premises of inductive inference establish the certainty ofthe conclusion.” Is the statement true? H. S. ’15
Ans: False.
25. Which of the following statement is correct? H. S. ’15
(a) Induction is concerned only with formal truth.
(b) Induction is a method of generalization.
(c) The conclusion of induction necessarily follows from its premises.
Ans: (b) Induction is a method of generalization.
26. What is the principal characteristic of real induction? H. S. ’17, 20
Ans: Inductive leap.
27. In which of the following forms of induction is there an inductive leap? H. S. ’16
(a) Complete induction
(b) Analogical induction
(c) Mere enumeration
(d) Logical analogy
Ans: Analogical induction.
28. What is meant by so-called induction or pseudo-induction? H. S. ’14, 18
Ans: The induction in which the fundamental characteristic of induction, namely the inductive leap, is absent is called so-called induction or pseudoinduction.
29. What is the basis of scientific induction? H. S. ’18
Ans: Uncontradicted experience.
30. Is the conclusion of scientific induction certain in nature? H. S. ’18
Ans: Yes.
31. “All substances expand when heated.” – Is this an example ofscientific induction?
Ans: Yes.
32. Induction is of ______ types. (Fill in the blank) H. S. ’18
Ans: Three.
33. What is the principal subject matter of Logic? H. S. ’19
Ans: Thought, inference and reasoning.
34. Every month of the English calendar year has less than 32 days. What type of induction is this statement an example of?
Ans: So-called induction.
35. Is the conclusion of unscientific induction certain in nature? H. S. ’19
Ans: No.
36. Is there an inductive leap in complete induction? H. S. ’19
Ans: No.
37. Does analogical inference depend upon the law of causation? H. S. ’20
Ans: No.
38. What type of proposition does scientific inference establish? H. S. ’20
Ans: Valid proposition.
39. “The basis of induction is itself the result of induction.” Whoseaid this? H. S. ’20
Ans: John Stuart Mill.
B. Short Answe Type Quesitons: (Marks for each–2)
1. How many types of induction are there and what are they?
Ans: Induction is mainly of two types, namely:
(a) Real induction and
(b) So-called induction or pseudo-induction.
Real induction is again of three types, namely:
(a) Scientific induction,
(b) Unscientific induction, and
(c) Analogical inference.
So-called induction is also of three types, namely:
(a) Complete induction,
(b) Logical analogy, and
(c) Mere enumeration.
2. Define scientific induction. H. S. ’18, 19
Ans: The inductive inference in which, by observing particular instancesand on the basis of the Uniformity of Nature and the law of causation, auniversal valid proposition is established as a conclusion regarding all instances of that class is called scientific induction.
Example: Ram is mortal. Rahim is mortal.
Therefore, all men are mortal.
3. What is unscientific induction? Or, Define unscientific induction. H. S. ’20
Ans: The induction in which, by observing particular events and without establishing the law of causation, a general proposition is established merelyon the basis of uncontradicted experience is called unscientific induction.
4. Define so-called induction or pseudo-induction.
Ans: The induction in which the fundamental characteristic of induction, namely the inductive leap, is absent; that is, where from the knowledge ofparticular objects or events one does not arrive at a universal relation regardingall objects or events of that class, is called so-called induction or pseudo-induction.
5. What is deductive inference?
Ans: The process of inference in which, on the basis of the knowledge of a universal relation, one arrives at the knowledge of a particular relation iscalled deductive inference.
6. What is real induction?
Ans: The induction in which the fundamental characteristic of induction, namely the inductive leap, is present; that is, where from the knowledge ofparticular objects or events one arrives at a universal relation regarding all objects or events of that class, is called real induction.
7. What is meant by ‘argument’?
Ans: When an inference is expressed in language, it is called an argument. An argument consists of two or more propositions.
8. What is meant by premise?
Ans: The proposition on the truth of which another proposition dependsfor its truth is called a premise.
9. What is conclusion?
Ans: The propositions on the truth of which another proposition dependsare called premises, and the proposition which is derived from the premisesis called the conclusion.
10. What is analogical inference?
Ans: When, by observing certain similarities in qualities or attributesbetween two objects, it is inferred on the basis of that similarity that a qualityor attribute present in one object is also present in the other, it is calledanalogical inference.
11. What is inductive leap (inductive crisis)? Or, Define inductiveleap. H. S. ’18
Ans: In the process of inductive inference, when one passes from theexperience of particular instances to the knowledge of a universal relation, the leap or gap that arises is called the inductive leap or inductive crisis.
12. What is complete induction?
Ans: The induction in which every particular instance included isexamined separately and then a universal proposition is established is calledcomplete induction.
13. What is good analogy? Or, Define good analogical inferencewith a suitable example. H. S. ’14, ’18
Ans: The analogical inference in which the similarities between two objectsare similarities of essential and important attributes is called good analogy.
Example: Like the Earth, the planet Mars has soil, water and air.
There is life on Earth; therefore, there is life on Mars.
14. Define bad analogy or false analogy with a suitable example. H. S. ’15
Ans: The analogical inference in which the similarities between two objects are not similarities of essential and important attributes but only of secondaryor accidental attributes is called bad analogy or false analogy. Example: Likehuman beings, cows have birth, growth and death. Human beings haveintelligence; therefore, cows also have intelligence.
15. Mention two differences between deduction and induction. H. S. ’15, ’17, ’19
Ans: Two differences between deduction and induction are:
(a) In deduction, one proceeds from universal to particular truth; but ininduction, one proceeds from particular to universal.
(b) Deductive inference is concerned with formal truth; on the other hand, induction is concerned with both material and formal truth.
16. Why is the conclusion of analogical inference probable? H. S. ’18
Ans: The conclusion of analogical inference is probable because it is not established on the basis of the law of causation.
17. Why is the conclusion of unscientific induction probable? H. S. ’18
Ans: The conclusion of unscientific induction is probable because suchinference is established merely on the basis of uncontradicted experiencewithout determining the causal relation.
18. “Like human beings, plants have birth, growth and death. Human beings have intelligence. Therefore, plants also haveintelligence.” What type of analogical inference is this? H. S. ’18
Ans: Bad analogy (false analogy).
19. Why is the law of causation called the formal basis? H. S. ’19
Ans: The law of causation is called the formal basis of induction becausethrough it the formal validity of induction is established.
C. Medium Answer Type Quesitons: (Marks for each–4)
1. Briefly discuss the stages of the inductive method.
Ans: The stages of the inductive method are four, namely: (a) Observation,
(b) Formation of hypothesis, (c) Generalization, and (d) Verification. Theseare briefly discussed below:
(a) Observation: In inductive inference, one proceeds from particular touniversal. The first stage of this method is observation. At this stage, it isobserved what kind of uniformity and causal relation exist among events.
(b) Formation of hypothesis: The second stage of induction is theformation of hypothesis. At this stage, through the analysis of complex events, elimination, and variation of surrounding circumstances, when it is determinedthat the relation between two events is constant or invariable, a hypothesis regarding the existence of a causal relation between those events is formed.
(c) Generalization: Generalization is the third stage of induction. At thisstage, on the basis of knowledge of particular events, a general propositionregarding all similar events is established. When the existence of a causal relation is proved through the application of experimental methods, it becomespossible to establish a general proposition.
(d) Verification: The last stage of induction is verification. Afterestablishing a general proposition about certain events, an inquiry is madewhether that proposition holds true in other similar cases. If the general proposition is found to be true in other similar cases, it is accepted as a law.
2. What is scientific induction? Discuss its characteristics. H. S. ’20
Ans: The inductive inference in which, by observing particular eventsand on the basis of the Uniformity of Nature and the law of causation, auniversal valid proposition is established as a conclusion regarding all eventsof that class is called scientific induction.
The characteristics of scientific induction are as follows:
(a) In scientific induction, a proposition is established. This proposition isnot merely a concept or idea. A proposition expresses a relation between two terms. The task of scientific induction is to establish a universal propositionby relating two terms.
(b) In scientific induction, a universal proposition is established as theconclusion. Through it, the predicate gives new knowledge about the subject.
(c) Its conclusion is based on observation and experiment. Therefore, itsconclusion is materially true.
(d) Its conclusion is universal; it begins with particular propositions andreaches a general conclusion.
(e) In scientific induction, one proceeds from known facts to unknownfacts. Thus, the inductive leap is always present.
(f) In scientific induction, besides a material basis, the principles of theUniformity of Nature and the law of causation are also accepted. Therefore, it is not only materially true but also formally valid.
3. What is unscientific induction? Discuss its characteristics. H. S. ’17, ’19
Ans: The induction in which, by observing particular events and without establishing the law of causation, a general proposition is established merelyon the basis of uncontradicted experience is called unscientific induction.
Example: All the swans we have seen so far are white; therefore, all swans inthe world are white. This type of induction is called unscientific because theconclusion is established without determining the law of causation.
The characteristics of unscientific induction are as follows:
(a) In unscientific induction, a general proposition is established.
(b) The universal proposition depends on the observation of manyparticular instances.
(c) Although the conclusion depends on observation, mere observationcannot establish a universal conclusion with certainty.
(d) Unscientific induction depends on uncontradicted experience. Afterobserving many instances of a thing or event and finding no contrary instance, a universal conclusion is established on that basis.
(e) The truth of the conclusion of unscientific induction is not certain; it isonly probable.
4. Write a note on the ‘inductive leap’.
Ans: Inductive inference is the process in which, after observing several particular instances, a universal conclusion is established regarding all knownand unknown events of that class. In this process, one proceeds from the knownto the unknown. Such a process involves a leap. This leap contains uncertainty. That is, when one passes from observed particular instances to a universal proposition of that class, a risk is involved. For example, after observing that Ram, Rahim and Hari have died, when we conclude that all human beings aremortal, a risk remains. This uncertainty involved in the inductive leap wastermed as the “inductive crisis” by Alexander Bain. Nevertheless, becauseinduction advances through this crisis, Bain regarded it as the fundamental characteristic of induction.
5. What is analogical inference? Discuss its characteristics. H. S. ’15, ’17, ’20
Ans: When, by observing certain similarities in qualities or attributesbetween two objects, it is inferred on the basis of that similarity that someother quality present in one object is also present in the other, it is calledanalogical inference.
The main characteristics of analogical inference are as follows:
(a) It is based on the similarity of certain qualities or attributes between two objects.
(b) In such inference, one proceeds from one particular instance to anotherparticular instance.
(c) Analogical inference is not based on causal knowledge. Therefore, itsconclusion is only probable.
(d) Like other forms of real induction, in analogical inference one proceedsfrom known to unknown; hence, the inductive leap is also present here.
6. What is scientific inference? Write three similarities betweenscientific and unscientific induction. H. S. ’16, ’17, ’20
Ans: The inductive inference in which, by observing particular events and on the basis of the Uniformity of Nature and the law of causation, a universal valid proposition is established as a conclusion regarding all events of that
class is called scientific induction.
The similarities between scientific and unscientific induction are:
(a) In both types of induction, a general proposition is established.
(b) Both scientific and unscientific induction depend on observation.
(c) In both types of inference, the inductive leap is present.
7. Distinguish between good analogy and bad analogy with suitableexamples. H. S. ’17
Ans: The inference in which the similarities between two objects aresimilarities of essential and important attributes is called good analogy.
Example: Like the Earth, the planet Mars has soil, water and air. There is lifeon Earth; therefore, there is life on Mars. The analogical inference in which the similarities between two objectsare not of essential and important attributes but only of secondary or accidental attributes is called bad analogy or false analogy. Example: Like human beings, cows have birth, growth and death. Human beings have intelligence; therefore, cows also have intelligence.
8. Write two similarities and two differences between analogical and scientific induction. H. S. ’16
Ans: There are some similarities between analogical and scientificinduction, such as:
(a) Both types of inference depend on observation.
(b) Both analogical and scientific induction are forms of real induction.
There are also some differences, such as:
(a) Analogical inference is not based on causal relation, whereas scientificinduction is based on causal relation.
(b) The conclusion of analogical induction is probable, whereas theconclusion of scientific induction is certain.
9. Briefly discuss the two conditions for evaluating analogical inference with examples. H. S. ’16, ’18
Ans: The two conditions for evaluating analogical inference are:
(a) The greater the number and importance of similar attributes, the greaterthe probability of the analogical inference. Example: There are similaritiesbetween human beings and chimpanzees. Human beings possess intelligence; therefore, chimpanzees also possess intelligence.
(b) The greater the number or importance of dissimilar attributes, the lessthe probability of the analogical inference. Example: Although there are manydifferences between the planet Mars and the Earth, by observing a fewsimilarities (such as the presence of soil), one may infer that since there are plants on Earth, there may also be plants on Mars. However, the probability islow because the degree of dissimilarity between the two planets is high.
D. Essay-Type Questions and Answers: (Marks for each–6)1. Discuss the differences between scientific induction and unscientificinduction. H. S. ’18 ’20
Ans: The differences between scientific induction and unscientificinduction are as follows:
(a) The inductive inference in which, by observing particular events andon the basis of the Uniformity of Nature and the law of causation, a validuniversal proposition is established as a conclusion regarding all events ofthat class is called scientific induction.
On the other hand, the induction in which, by observing particular eventsand without establishing the law of causation, a general proposition isestablished merely on the basis of uncontradicted experience is calledunscientific induction.
(b) The conclusion of scientific induction is established on observationand experiment. Therefore, its conclusion is materially true.
On the other hand, the truth of the conclusion of unscientific induction isnot certain in nature; it is only probable.
(c) The conclusion of scientific induction is universal. It begins withparticular propositions and reaches a general conclusion.
On the other hand, although the conclusion of unscientific inductiondepends on observation, a universal conclusion cannot be established withcertainty through mere observation.
(d) Scientific induction may be called a complex process, because it hasfour stages, namely—observation, formation of hypothesis, generalization, and verification.
On the other hand, unscientific induction is comparatively simple. In it, ageneral proposition is established on the basis of uncontradicted experience.
2. Write any three similarities and three dissimilarities betweenunscientific induction and analogical inference.
Ans: The similarities between unscientific induction and analogical inference are as follows:
(a) Both unscientific induction and analogical inference are forms of real induction.
(b) Both types of inference depend on observation.
(c) In both types of inference, an attempt is made to determine causal relation.
The dissimilarities between unscientific induction and analogical inference are as follows:
(a) In unscientific induction, one proceeds from particular to universal.
But in analogical inference, one proceeds from particular to particular.
(b) The main basis of unscientific induction is uncontradicted experience.
But the main basis of analogical inference is incomplete knowledge ofsimilarity.
(c) In unscientific induction, knowledge about the extension of the subject
(denotation) is obtained. In analogical inference, knowledge about theattributes or qualities of an object is obtained.
3. Explain the law of causation as the formal basis of induction.
Ans: According to the law of causation, behind every event there is somecause. That is, no effect can occur without a cause. For establishing the formal basis of induction, one must depend upon the Uniformity of Nature and thelaw of causation.
Through the law of causation, a valid universal proposition can beestablished. Example: All human beings are mortal. To prove the universalityof this proposition, we would have to observe the death of human beings ofthe past, present, and future. But this is not possible for us. It can be provedonly through the law of causation.
